Task-based Learning (TBL) is an increasingly important approach in ELT. It is considered to be a breakthrough as it is thought to replicate everyday situations; learners are encouraged to, as Nunan (2004:1) states, utilise the language of everyday life ‘beyond’ the classroom. Ultimately, TBL is one of the approaches which focus on meaning and communication more than form and structure; learners are given opportunities to use language for natural communication in a classroom setting (Willis & Willis, 2007:4).

This article will provide the definition of Task-based Learning; present the stages of a TBL lesson; and discuss some advantages and disadvantages of the approach.

What is Task-Based Learning?

 In his seminal book, Nunan (2004:1) suggests six principles for TBL, which constitute the basic tenets of the approach:

1. The content is chosen based on the learners’ needs.
2. Communication is done through using the target language for interaction.
3. Authentic materials are included in learning.
4. Giving learners opportunities to focus on what and how they learn.
5. Valuing learners’ experiences as significant factors in learning.
6. Connecting language learning in classrooms with the authentic everyday use of language.

Significantly, these criteria focus on interaction, communication and authenticity. Such goals are achieved by, as the very name of the approach demonstrates, giving learners ‘tasks’. Although it might be perceived that any activity learners do in class is a task, Thornbury (2006:222-223) draws a distinction between a ‘task’ and an ‘activity / exercise’. He argues that ‘tasks’ are classroom exercises which focus on communicative meaningful outcomes, such as solving a problem or drafting a plan. On the other hand, an ‘activity’ or an ‘exercise’ focuses on practising language items, for instance, the present perfect, in a controlled way without any communicative objectives.

Therefore, Task-based Learning is centred around simulating real-life tasks in the classroom to encourage learners to use the language in a natural communicative manner. This does not mean that focus on form is totally neglected, but there is room for it depending on the performance of the learners during tasks.

Stages of a TBL lesson

Typically, a TBL lesson has three main phases: a) pre-task; b) task cycle; c) language focus, as illustrated by Willis (1996:38). Nevertheless, Willis (in Harmer 2001:87) noted that Task-based Learning is more complex than simply a three-stage methodology. The following is a brief account of each stage based on Willis (1996:39-103):

1)    Pre-task:

In this phase, learners are introduced to the topic of the target task. The teacher may need to pre-teach some examples of important phrases learners will need to use when performing the task. Additionally, the teacher will make sure that he / she facilitates instructions so that student understand what they need to do. A key step is that learners hear or watch a similar task as a model for them to follow; for example, if the task is to give a presentation about tourist attractions in their countries, they watch or listen to a presentation about the same topic.

2)    Task cycle:

The task cycle is probably the most productive phase which gives the opportunity for learners to be autonomous and creative. Content and meaning are the sole focus of this phase; learners are not provided language work. The task cycle consists of three steps:

First, they do the task by brainstorming ideas and organising their thoughts in pairs or groups, meanwhile, the teacher monitors from a distance. At this stage, learners’ communication skills are supposed to develop. Going back to the example task of giving a presentation, students at this stage should be deciding on the content, the outline, the pictures of attractions, etc.

Second, students will plan how they are going to report to the rest of the class; e.g., plan how they will deliver the presentation; who will start, who will finish, timings of each students, etc. The teacher’s role here is a ‘language advisor’ who helps students with, for instance, alternative vocabulary to make meanings clearer; grammatical structures which illustrate ideas more meaningfully.

Third, students report their production to colleagues normally orally but can also be in a written form. Apparently, students, who were selected beforehand, report to the rest of the class; they, for example, give time-bound presentations group by group. The role of the teacher is a chairperson who organises the procedures and responds to the content of the presentations.

3)    Language focus:

Unlike the PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) approach in which the language focus comes at the start, TBL concludes with it. It gives learners the opportunity to investigate language they used during the task cycle. Useful language which emerges from the task is analysed and discussed so that students are able to notice it when they encounter the same task in real-life. In order to consolidate such language, learners are given practice activities to help them process useful functional phrases needed for the successful achievement of the task when they do it again either inside the classroom or outside it.

Perceived Advantages and Disadvantages

There are a number of issues which some ELT practitioners perceive about Task-based Learning. Willis and Willis (2007:200) illustrated ten perceived obstacles; they relate mainly to timing, learners, motivation, administration and classroom management. They state that:

• Most books do not use TBL, so there will be a need to find timing to design tasks.
• Lack of timing to integrate TBL into existing syllabi.
• Teacher may be confused about how to teach TBL if they are not used to it.
• Some learners ask for concrete outcomes such as grammatical rules.
• Learners may not be motivated enough to take TBL seriously.
• Given that the approach uses ‘real’ tasks, it is not suitable for low-level students.
• Overwhelming use of L2 for learners during the different phases of TBL.
• Student feel no sense of progress; the outcomes of learning are not clear.
• Challenging for teachers (and learners) because there is no control over language.
• There is a gap between TBL and existing exam systems- exams are not based on tasks.

Although the abovementioned points are feasible, there are ways to overcome them. Consequently, advantages can be derived from such perceived disadvantages. The following are examples of the numerous advantages of Task-based learning:

• It focuses on meaning and production; this lets off steam as it does not confine students to use pre-taught language.
• Learners make efforts to understand each other and to get their messages across, which enables students to acquire language easily (Larsen-Freeman, 2000:144).
• Attention is given to the language needed for genuine communication, not to learn language items simply because they exist in language (Nunan, 2004:7).
• TBL facilitates collaboration, teamwork, negotiation and other skills needed for effective communication.
• Learners experiences are valued, the teacher is not the source of knowledge but rather a facilitator. So, there is a principle of sharing.
• It boosts creativity due to the flexibility of tasks. Although students carry out tasks of the same theme, each individual / group create their own unique tasks.

Conclusion

This essay has presented some key features of Task-based Learning: the premise underlying the approach is to focus on meaning via real-life simulations of genuine tasks learners are expected to encounter outside the classroom. TBL, in its popular framework,  has three phases: 1) the pre-task, in which learners are introduced o the topic and watch / listen to the task they will be doing; 2) the task cycle, this is when students create the task, prepare how to report it to the class and then report it; 3) the language focus phase in which useful language examples are analysed and practised.

While there are supposed limitations to TBL implementation; such as motivation, teachers’ readiness and time constraints; I think that there is always room for experimenting with it and investigating whether or not it suits our learners. I suggest that reading a good TBL book would make it less intriguing and would definitely encourage us to try it out for our learners.

Bibliography

Harmer, J. (2001) The Practice of English Language Teaching. 8^th ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000) Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. 6^th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

Nunan, D. (2004) Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Thornbury, S. (2006) An A-Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmillan Publisher Limited.

Willis, D. & Willis, J. (2007) Doing Task-based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Willis, J. (1996) A framework for Task-based Learning. Essex: Longman.

So, whatever the training objectives are, should we really bother about introducing teaching methodologies? There are good reasons to do that.
Diane Larsen-Freeman (2000: ix-x) mentioned 5 reasons why studying teaching methods in teacher training is important. The following are the reasons with my comments on them:

1) Studying methods allows us to understand the premise underlying our actions: this gives us a logical base which we can refer to (and revisit when necessary) during our teaching practice. It’s very useful when initial teacher training programmes such as CELTA gives undivided attention to aims; this includes main, subsidiary, and personal aims as well as objectives for each stage in the lesson. Bringing the teaching method to teachers’ attention lets them know which techniques they use are appropriate and which aren’t.

2) Being aware of the principles upon which methodologies are based can develop teachers’ analytical skills in relation to the suitability of a particular method to their teaching context. This can be very demanding especially with teachers who are planning to embrace teacher training or academic management pathways. Having this knowledge is critical to specialist policymakers who need to assess methods and decide which can best suit their situations.

3) Understanding the history of teaching methods and their development over the decades inspires practitioners to hold discussion forums and conferences to share what they gain and what they need to reconsider regarding their teaching practice, no matter how diverse their contexts or cultures are. A good example of this is TESOL and IATEFL annual conferences in which ELT professionals from around the globe present, challenge and discuss their ideas.

4) Greater understanding of teaching methods promotes teachers’ reflective practice through which they are able to properly match teaching approaches to their learner groups and decide which techniques better suit individuals in different situations.

5) A package of techniques is needed so that teachers can cater for different learning styles and employ the most relevant way of teaching. Adequate study of methodologies is a key factor in expanding this repertoire of skills. Not only does this  make a teacher expert in how to teach different students, materials, contexts, etc, but it also boosts his creativity and ingenuity.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000) Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (2nd ed.) Oxford: OUP.

Motivation is the key to learning. When it comes from within, it’s intrinsic; however, it can be developed and created extrinsically. The following are 5 practical tips to keep your students motivated all the time.

1. Promote a positive atmosphere:

Smile at your students, deal with them in a respectful manner and establish rapport with them. This could be your nature, if not, fake it until you make it. It makes students more valued, confident and have a positive experience which helps them keep motivated.

2. Link courses to big aims; and learning outcomes to big contexts:

I mean to elicit / remind students of why they learn English in the first place, and why we do each (set of) activity (ies). By doing this, the whole learning experience is seen in a meaningful context rather than attending some lessons and doing some tasks in isolation. Consequently, students keep motivated, and regain motivation in case of any ‘downs’.

3. When there’s a communication issue, intervene to fix the issue:

This is an example of mine: 2 days ago, I was teaching a class when one student mentioned a comment in L1, I echoed the comment in a disapproving manner (to highlight that using L1 in this situation is unnecessary). It was apparent that the student got embarrassed because my reaction was a bit off-putting. About 10 minutes later I noticed that the same student was erasing a wrong answer in her colleague’s book, so I said, “Well done for helping your friend; this is a small action but it counts, thank you!” Although it was something minor, I didn’t want to miss this chance to put the student on track again and to make her feel more appreciated.

4. Give students opportunities to express their opinions about learning and suggest improvement:

I do this informally, by having discussions about student’s learning preferences and how they would like to learn; for example I ask them about what kind of activities they enjoy more and why. Formally, at the end of each level, we distribute a questionnaire through which students can say what they find positive and what they need to change; and I react to their needs. Such a way promotes students’ sense of ownership to learning.

5. Not to be an ‘innocent bystander’ all the time:

I mean, sometimes the teacher can become involved in classroom activities (while monitoring of course); for instance, tell your students when they prepare questions for a mingling activity that they can feel free to ask you the questions. They feel more at ease and they like knowing more about their teacher, and, as a result, they maintain motivation.

• Challenges:

Educational organisations and language teachers face challenges on daily basis, especially NNESTs. Ulate (2011) points that the term ‘non-native English speaker’ has a negative connotation attributed to it as people compare it with the positive term ‘native English speaker’. One of the consequences of this is the lack of confidence specially when there are native colleagues. There are internal causes for this due to the perception of native English-speaking teachers (NESTs) as linguistically and pedagogically superior. External causes can mainly be assigned to the way students compare between NESTs and NNESTs (including NNESTs as language learners themselves).

It is serious when students ask for NESTs in feedback sessions because it threatens NNESTs’ credibility and motivation; however, it can be motivating for others to advance their language learning. In his well-known article ‘Native or Nonnative: Who’s worth more?’ Megyes (1991) concludes that being native or non-native does not determine the “teacher’s effectiveness” but there are many variables; and that “a favourable mix” is healthy as it opens the doors for meaningful teamwork.

In a different context where all or the majority of the teachers are NNESTs, there can emerge problems when teachers have mixed levels of English. One of the challenges is staffroom gossip; some teachers feel high-caliber and start to gossip about those who are less competent in language. Likewise, those who are less capable start to be envious because other teachers are proud, sometimes arrogant, because of their language or accent. Indeed, this is a challenge for the teachers as it has a detrimental effect on teambuilding. Symptoms vary, such as the look between two friends when somebody else talks, the gossip which takes place after someone has talked in a meeting, etc. (Tizzard 2006)

In addition, when NNESTs language progress is slow, certain individuals find it difficult to ascend in the training ladder; they stop at a certain point failing to exceed it. An example would be a teacher who is not eligible for the DELTA because he / she is not yet C2 in the CEFR. Moreover, this puts timetabling constraints on the academic staff and admins when assigning higher-level classes such as B2 and above to teachers.

• A Framework for Recruiting NNESTs :

Recruitment is such a big process which involves complicated procedures with even more considerations when the candidate is non-native. Problems of non-native-related nature can be minimised by careful attention to the recruitment and selection process of teachers. Below is a suggested scheme which provides some guidance to ELT organisations. It is useful for recruitment in general; nevertheless, it is essential in the case of non-native candidates.

1. Although NNESTs sometimes are not equally treated as NESTs, and “discriminated against because of their non-native status” as Ulate (2011) argues, recruitment teams should not have blind sympathy and unjustifiably accept NNESTs declaring the radical sign of “The Native Speaker is dead![1]“. A balanced combination is always more effective.
2. While it is preferable to have a degree in teaching or education, recruiters have to decide if this is essential.
3. The English language level issue must be clear: What level? How do we know? Which test should candidates have? Will it be a prerequisite for the application? All these questions should be answered or else undesirable consequences can happen; for example, having teachers who are less competent than some students!
4. Duties and responsibilities should be clear in the job description in addition to class levels the candidate will teach.
5. In schools which have learners of different age range, i.e., adults, young learners, etc. the candidate should know which group they are teaching.
6. Interviews should include competency questions through which the candidates’ language level, soft skills, teamwork, willingness to learn, etc. are assessed.
7. The recruiting board should make reasonable decisions when there are complex situations, for example, a candidate whose language level is very high but are stubborn vs. a candidate who is willing to learn and open to new experiences but his / her language level is significantly lower.
8. When language schools decide to give pre-service training, they need to decide whether to incorporate a language awareness element in the course or not depending on the type of candidates and the school needs- this relates to point b. and the candidates’ previous education. A similar proposition was put by Anderson (2015) when he compares between the needs of NESTs and NNESTs in initial teacher training courses.

• Practical tips for NNESTs:

In “A forum on non-nativeness in ELT” in IATEFL conference 2015, there were three of us presenting in the forum: a colleague talked about the topic from an academic point of view; the other colleague was categorically denying any criticism to NNESTs; and I addressed non-nativeness as an existing issue highlighting how to boost the NNESTs credibility. I believe that NNESTs should be humble and confident at the same time, that is, they should be willing to accept constructive criticism and improve their proficiency and efficiency; they also should not feel inferior to their native counterparts.

The following are practical tips for the NNESTs to be able to survive in the ELT setting.

Tip 1: Being a NNEST is not a shame; Medgyes (2001) listed six advantages NNESTs:

1. Provide a better learner model.
2. Teach language-learning strategies more effectively.
3. Supply more information about the English language.
4. Better anticipate and prevent language difficulties.
5. Be sensitive to their students.
6. Benefit from their ability to use the students’ mother tongue.

Tip 2: No matter which level you are, you have to continuously improve your English language. It is commonly perceived that non-natives use ‘bookish’ language, so shifting towards more ‘real’ language is key.

Tip 3: Use language more confidently and try to embrace your native speaker mode without exaggeration.

Tip 4: In your teaching, try to be more creative and provide lots of opportunities for the students to use language in meaningful contexts.

Tip 5: On your first lesson, be clear with your students that you are a language learner as well and you do not know everything about English; however, that will depend on the type of students and how they might perceive this.

Tip 6: Always maintain a positive approach towards your colleagues; be ready to sympathise and humbly offer help to those who need it, and seek help from those who can offer it.

Tip 7: Be sincere. Do not backbite your colleagues or managers. Give advice and ask questions if you are in doubt.

Tip 8: Be autonomous! Do not expect that your school or centre should be responsible for your development. Although they may offer training opportunities, you have to take responsibility of your learning and professional development.

Tip 9: Participate and present in conferences, try to publish in ELT journals, take relevant free online course on FutureLearn, Coursera, etc.

Tip 10: Read about ELT in general and NNESTs in particular.

All in all, although the challenges bilingual teachers face are unavoidable, they have to be dealt with positively in order to boost confidence and teamwork. Recruiters also need to clearly delineate a scheme which can be used as a reference for them when selecting candidates – each school decides what criteria meet their needs without discrimination. This, hopefully, is going to add integrity and inclusion to ELT recruitment.

References:

Awan, A. S., Cavalcante, H., Othman, A. (2016) ‘ Forum on non-nativeness in ELT: implications, knowledge of

language and credibility’ in IATEFL 2015 Manchester Conference Selections. Kent: IATEFL, pp. 172-175.

Medgyes, P. (1992) ‘Native or non-native: who’s worth more?’, ELT Journal, vol. 46, issue. 4, pp. 347.

Medgyes, P. (2001) ‘When the teacher is a non-native speaker’. Teaching Pronunciation. Online. [Accessed: 21/09/2016]. <http://teachingpronunciation.pbworks.com/f/When+the+teacher+is+a+non-native+speaker.PDF>

Tizzard, P. (2006) ‘The Teambuilding Activities Pocketbook’, Management Pocketbooks Ltd

Ulate, N. V. (2011) ‘Insights towards Native and Non-native ELT Educators’. Bellatella Journal of Teaching & Learning Language & Literature, vol. 4 (1), pp. 56-79.

[1] Peter Medgyes pointed out to a book with this title in his article “When a teacher is a non-native”

The way people understand Islaam is not always the way it should be conceived. In this paper I’m going to touch upon this issue and clarify what Islaam really means. The sections of the research will be as follows:
A) The level of pillars and articles.
B) The level of the testimony of faith.
C) The level of Birr (righteousness).

The level of pillars and articles:

Islam is a way of life that includes both faith and practice. Having this into consideration, when look into the various authentic texts such as the second Hadith in the Arbaieen Nawawayyah we find that there are five pillars of Islam: First, bearing witness that none has the right to be worshipped except Allah and that Muhammed salla Allah alayhe wa sallam is His messenger. Second, performing the five daily prayers. Third, Giving Zakah. Fourth, observing fasting, and Fifth, doing Hajj. Failing to do one of these pillars, while being able to, one is considered to be a non-Muslim.

Likewise, there are six articles of faith: to believe in Allah, His angels, His books, His messengers, the Last Day and the divine decree both good and evil.
Combining these two, we can be more aware of what Islam really means. Having faith and acting upon it is the true message of Islam. It is even more comprehensible to consider the idea of Ihsaan : When angel Gabriel asked the prophet about it he answered that Ihsaan means to worship Allah as you can see Him, and if not, He sees you.
This concept of having faith and acting on it is emphasized in the Qur’an so many times. For example, Allah said, the meaning of which is :
“And those who have faith and do righteous good deeds, they are dwellers of Paradise, they will dwell therein forever” Qur’an (2:82)

The level of the testimony of faith:

It is generally known among many people that bearing witness that لا إله إلا الله means : there is no God but Allah. However if we have a look at the scholars’ sayings we see that it means: none has the right to be worshipped except Allah. There are necessities for bearing this witness. Wahb ibn Munabbih was asked: “Is not ‘La Ilaha Illa Allah’ the key to the Paradise?” He said, “Yes, but there is no key without teeth. If you bring a key which has the correct teeth, it will open for you. If not, it will not open for you.”
The scholars derived certain condition from the Qur’an and the Sunnah for this testimony to be beneficial to its holder I.e. to serve as the key to paradise. These conditions are as follows:
1. Knowledge: to know its meaning, that is we affirm that Allah only is to be worshipped and that no other deity has this right.
2. Certainty: to believe his with surety with no doubt in one’s heart.
3. Acceptance: after knowing the meaning and being certain we must accept the necessities of this phrase; otherwise one is a disbeliever if he or she did not accept it.
4. Compliance: that is to abide by what Allah ordered and legislated and to abstain from what He forbade.
5. Truthfulness: not to say it only by tongue like the hypocrites do but to say it from heart and to adhere to it.
6. Love: to love it even though some of its necessities are against our desires – this is the true love, to follow Allah and His messenger’ path.
7. Purity of intention: which means that we should say it only for the sake of Allah to gain His pleasure.
Taking the abovementioned details into consideration we conclude that the meaning of Islam is not just a word that we say or some action we do ritually and that’s all! There is a meaning beyond every act a Muslim does. This example of the testimony of faith is just an example or else every act of worship or article of faith has necessities and conditions and for a Muslim to understand Islam well they should acquire the minimum of these necessities by which they can be true Muslims.

The level of Birr (righteousness):

It might be strange to mention this item when talking about the true understanding of Islam but there is a significant link. It is true because a lot of Muslims isolate their “religious” life from their everyday conduct. The gap has to be bridged between knowledge and practice. I heard some people saying that religion is between you and Allah; it is in the “Masjid”. But is this really how it should be?
Allah Subahanaho wa ta’aala said, the meaning of which is:
“It is not Al-Birr (piety, righteousness, and each and every act of obedience to Allâh, etc.) that you turn your faces towards east and west (in prayers); but Al-Birr is that: one believes in Allâh, the Last Day, the Angels, the Book, the Prophets and gives his wealth, in spite of love for it, to the kinsfolk, to the orphans, and to Al-Masâkin (the poor), and to the wayfarer, and to those who ask, and to set slaves free, performs As-Salât, and gives the Zakât, and who fulfill their covenant when they make it, and who are patient in extreme poverty and ailment and at the time of fighting. Such are the people of the truth and they are Al Muttaqûn” Qur’an (2: 177)
Imam Al-Baghwy said in is tafseer that Al-Birr (righteousness) is every righteous act that cause its doer to enter paradise.
It is very interesting that Allah mentioned this fact that some people nowadays claim that religion is only in the masjid. “It is not righteousness that you turn your faces towards east and west in prayers” But Allah mentioned what righteousness really is by stating a number of acts related to: heart → belief in Allah…etc. Dealing with people → giving charity and freeing slaves. Worship → Performing prayers and Zakat. Conduct: fulfilling covenants. Self → patience.

To conclude, there has been a problem with some Muslims ,as well as non-Muslims, understanding the true meaning of Islam and its meaning cannot be limited to certain shallow plain definitions without explaining what it necessitates. Islam is not just peace, Islam is not some wrapped beliefs in mind, Islam is not even good actions without faith. ISLAM is the way of life that Allah pleased for us, and that system organizes our relationship to Allah, people, ourselves, the environment and everything around us.

References:
1. The Noble Qur’an
2. www.quranexplorer.com
3. Fathul Bary Sharh Sahih Al-Bukhari, Ibn Hajar (web-based)
4. An Explanation of the Last Tenth of The Qur’an.
5. www.tafseer.info
6. www.sunnipath.com
7. www.islamweb.com
8. Al-Maktabah Ash-Shamelah (PC Application)
9. Ma’alim at-Tanzeel fee Tafseerul Qur’an, Imam Al Baghawy, Dar Ihya’ at-Turath, Beirut, 1420 (PC Application)

In this paper I am going to present Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the context of fulfilling human needs in Islam. I will provide examples from Qur’an and sunnah.

Islam is a complete way of life which was chosen by Allah, the creator of the heavens and the earth.  Thus, Islam is totally appealing to human needs as it organises both physical and spiritual sides of the human being.

Abraham Maslow is a psychologist who is known for his hierarchy of needs theory. How far is this theory congruent with Islam? The following account will be touching on this issue.

1. Psychological needs

• Food and drink: Allah says in the Qur’an, “… and eat and drink and not be extravagant…” Qur’an (7:31)
• Marriage: Allah’s Messenger (PBUH) said, “O young people! Whoever among you can marry, should marry, because it helps him lower his gaze and guard his modesty (i.e. his private parts from committing illegal sexual intercourse etc.), and whoever is not able to marry, should fast, as fasting diminishes his sexual power.”[1]
• Sleep: Allah says in the Qur’an, “And He it is who made the night for you, and the sleep a rest, and He made the day to raise up again” Qur’an (25:47)
• Homeostasis: Allah says, “O man! What has beguiled you from your Lord, the Gracious one. Who created you, then made you complete, then made you symmetrical?” Qur’an (82:6-7)
• Excretion: before entering toilets, we should say, “ O Allah, I seek refuge with You from male and female devils “[2]

2. Safety needs

• Body, health and family:

1. Allah says, “… and do not kill your people…” Qur’an (4:29)
2. The prophet (PBUH) said, “…a husband is a guardian of his family and is responsible for it; a lady is a guardian of her husband’s house and is responsible for it…”[3]

• Employment: The Prophet (PBUH) said, “Allah said, ‘I will be an opponent to three types of people on the Day of Resurrection: -1. One who makes a covenant in My Name, but proves treacherous; -2. One who sells a free person and eats his price; and -3. One who employs a laborer and takes full work from him but does not pay him for his labour.’ “[4]
• Resources and property:

1. Allah says, “… and do not squander wastefully.” Qur’an (17:26)
2. Allah also says, “And do not swallow up your property among yourselves by false means” Qur’an (2:188)

• Morality: The prophet (PBUH) said, “‘The best among you are the best in character (having good manners)”[5]

3. Love and belonging needs

• Friendship: The prophet (PBUH) said, “A man is upon the religion of his friend, so let one of you look at whom he befriends.”[6]
• Family and intimacy: Allah said, “And one of His signs is that He created mates for you from yourselves that you may find rest in them, and He put between you love and compassion…” Qur’an (30:21)

4. Esteem needs

• Self-esteem and confidence: There is a weak hadith narrated by Imam At-Tirmdhi which says, ” Do not let yourselves be ‘yes-men’, saying: ‘If the people are good then we will be good, and if they are wrong then we will be wrong.’Rather, make up your own minds, if the people are good then you are good, and if they are evil, then do not behave unjustly.”[7]
• Respect: Allah says, “O you who believe! Let not people laugh at other people perchance they may be better than them, nor let women laugh at other women, perchance they may be better than them; and do not find fault with your own people nor call on another by nicknames, evil is bad name after faith… ” Qur’an (49:11)

5. Self-actualisation needs

• Creativity, spontaneity and problem solving: When the prophet (PBUH) stopped near Badr just before the battle and Al Hubab Ibn Al Munzir asked him if it was inspired to the prophet by Allah or if it was resulted from war and consultation. When the prophet said it was war and consultation, the companion suggested better strategy and the prophet accepted it.[8]
• Lack of prejudice and acceptance of facts: Allah says, ” O you who believe! Be upright for Allah, bearers of witness with justice, and let not hatred of people incite you not to act equitably; act equitably, that is near to piety …” Qur’an (5:8)

To conclude, Islam, the religion revealed by the creator of the heavens and the earth, is fully in accordance with the needs of human beings as Allah is the creator of everything and He know better. Although Abraham Maslow did his best with his theory, Islam comes to encompasses further paradigms beyond man’s imagination.

Bibliography

Al-Bukhari. Sahih Al Bukhari. Edited by Muhammed Zohair bin Nasir An-Nasir. Dar Twq An-Najah, n.d.

al-Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman. Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum. n.d.

At-Tirmidhi. Snan At-Tirmidhi. Edited by Bashar Awwad Ma’roof. Darul Gharb Al Islami, Bairut, n.d.

Braik, Sheikh Saad Al. قيمة الاحترام في الإسلام. n.d. http://www.saadalbreik.com/Sad/news.php?action=show&id=448 (accessed Jul 2, 2013).

collections. n.d. sunnah.com (accessed June 19, 2013).

Islam QA. n.d. http://islamqa.info/ar/ref/137155 (accessed Jul 2, 2013).

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. n.d. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg (accessed Jul 1, 2013).

Muslim. Sahih Muslim. Edited by Muhamed Foad Abdel Baqi. Dar Ihyaa’ At-Turath Al Arabi, Bairut, n.d.

Quran Explorer. n.d. http://www.quranexplorer.com/quran/ (accessed Jul 1, 2013).

Zuhd, Dr. Essam El Abd. The Miracle Verses and its Impact about Sleeping in Quran. Gaza: www.iugaza.edu, 2010.

الأبيضي, محمد بن عبده آل محمد. إجابة السائل عن حديث المرء على دين خليله فلينظر أحدكم من يخالل . Sep 20, 2005. http://www.ahlalhdeeth.com/vb/showthread.php?t=38249 (accessed Jul 2, 2013).

المكتبة الشاملة. Vol. 3.48. Spnsored by www.arrawdah.com. n.d.

صيد الفوائد. n.d. www.saaid.net/‏ (accessed Jul 1, 2013).

[1] Sahih Al Bukhari, vol. 7, pp. 3, no. 5066

[2] Sunan Abee Dawood, vol.2, pp.2, no.4

[3] Sahih Al Bukhari, vol. 3, pp. 120, no. 2409

[4]  Sahih Al Bukhari, vol. 3, pp. 90, no. 2270

[5] Sahih Al Bukhari, vol. 8, pp.13, no. 6035

[6] Sunan At-Tirmidhi, vol. 4, pp. 167, no. 2378

[7] Ibid, vol.3, pp.432, no. 2007

[8] Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum, pp. 98

1) Haram foods and drinks.

2) Evidence from Qurán and Sunna.

3) Five prohibited foods and drinks.

Haram foods and drinks:

Islam is the most comprehensive way of life. It organises people’s lives in relation to Allah, themselves and environment. That’s why Islam tackled the issue of harmful consumption. Generally, foods and drinks are lawful except for some specific types. Some harm types are as follows:

• The dead animal.
• Blood.
• Swine (i.e. pork)
• That which is not slaughtered according to the sharia.
• That which has been strangled, beaten to death, killed by a fall, gored to death ar savaged by a beast of prey.
• Intoxicants.
• All what is harmful.

Sheikh Saleh Al Fawzan stated that scholars have formulated the prohibited animals in the following types:[1]

• What the sharia indicated, such as domestic donkeys.
• That which sharia put a rule for, such as fanged animals of prey and animals with talons.
• That which eat carrion, such as crows.
• Foul animals, such as rats and snakes.
• That born between a halal animal and a haram one such as mules.
• Animals we are asked to kill or asked not to kill.

Evidence from Qurán and Sunna:

• Eating good food:

Evidence from the Qurán: Allah, the Exalted says:

“O mankind, eat from whatever is on earth [that is] lawful and good” (Qurán 2:168)

“They ask you [O Muhammed] what has been made lawful for them. Say, ‘Lawful for you are all good foods …” (Qurán 5:4)

“Forbidden to you [for food]are: the dead animals, blood, the flesh of swine, the meat of that which was slaughtered as a sacrifice for others than Allah, that which has been strangled, or by a violent blow, or by a headlong fall, or by the goring of horns, and that which has been (partly) eaten by a wild animal.  “(Qurán 5:3)

“… and do not throw [yourselves] with your own hands into destruction” (Qurán 2:195)

Evidence from the Sunnah:

Jabir narrated, “The prophet (PBUH) forbade eating the meat of domestic donkeys… “[2]

Ibn Abbas said, “The messenger of Allah (PBUH) prohibited eating any of the fanged beasts of prey or any of the birds having talons”[3]

Five prohibited foods and drinks:

• Wine

Sharia Evidence: Allah, the Exalted, says: “ O you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone alters [to other than Allah], and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid it that you may be successful” (Qurán 5:90)

Scientific Evidence: France’s National Cancer Institute (INCA) did a study on drinking alcohol. The institute’s president, Dominique Maraninchi, said, “Small daily doses of alcohol are the most harmful. There is no amount, however small, which is good for you.’

The study warned, “The consumption of alcohol is associated with an increase in the risk of cancers – mouth, larynx, oesophagus, colon-rectum, and breast cancer.”[4]

• Pork

Sharia Evidence: Allah, the Exalted, says: “Forbidden to you [for food] are: the dead animals, blood, the flesh of swine…” (Qurán 5:3)

Scientific Evidence: Scientific evidences prove that pig meat is least healthy having different harmful agents like Cholesterol and Fatty Acids, Bacteria and Toxins and a number of parasites. The pig meat is high in fat and cholesterol that causes the cardiovascular diseases, obesity, the incidence of large intestine cancer. Bacteria and Toxins associated with pigs spread many diseases like salmonellosis, which leads to the acute gastroenteritis and diarrhea.[5]

• Smoking[6]

Sharia Evidence: Allah, the Exalted, says: “… and do not throw [yourselves] with your own hands into destruction” (Qurán 2:195)

Scientific Evidence: Tobacco smoking strongly increases the risk of developing cancer of the lung, oral cavity (mouth), pharynx, larynx, oesophagus, pancreas, bladder and renal pelvis (the kidney outlet). It also increases the risk of cancers of the nasal cavities (nose) and sinuses, stomach, liver, kidney, cervix (neck of the uterus) and bone marrow (myeloid leukaemia).[7]

• Rats

Sharia Evidence: The prophet (PBUH) said, “Five fawasiq[8], should be killed in al-Haram: rats, scorpions, kites, crows and rabid dogs”[9]

Scientific Evidence: One of the most historically dangerous rat-borne diseases is the bubonic plague, also called “Black Plague,” and its variants. Transfer occurs when fleas from the rats bite human beings. Fleas transported on rats are considered responsible for this plague during the Middle Ages, which killed millions. From the transmission of bubonic plague to typhus and hantavirus, rat infestations can prove harmful to human health.[10]

• Black pudding

Sharia Evidence: Allah, the Exalted, says: “Forbidden to you [for food] are: the dead animals, blood, the flesh of swine…” (Qurán 5:3)

Scientific Evidence: Black pudding has ingredients which are forbidden. They are pork and blood. As mentioned in item number 2, swine flesh is scientifically proven to be harmful. Blood is also the medium for a number of bacteria and harmful agents that cause many diseases to humans.

Bibliography

Black Pudding. [online]. [Accessed 17 DEc 2013]. Available from World Wide Web: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pudding>

Daily Mail. [online]. [Accessed 17 Dec 2013]. Available from World Wide Web: <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1148611/Drinking-just-glass-wine-day-INCREASE-risk-cancer-168–say-French.html#ixzz2nhdgCI6s>

Green Facts. [online]. [Accessed 17 Dec 2013]. Available from World Wide Web: <http://www.greenfacts.org/en/tobacco/3-tobacco-smoking/2-tobacco-smoking-tobacco.htm#0p0>

RAT-BORNE DISEASES. [online]. [Accessed 17 DEc 2013]. Available from World Wide Web: <http://www.orkin.com/rodents/rats/rat-borne-diseases/>

الفوزان, الشيخ صالح. 2009. الملخص الفقهي. دار المودة.

[1] Summary of Islamic Jurisprudence, Sheikh Saleh Al Fawzan, pp.609, 2009 (Arabic version)

[2] Bukhari & Muslim.

[3] Sunan Abo Dawood

[4] http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1148611/Drinking-just-glass-wine-day-INCREASE-risk-cancer-168–say-French.html#ixzz2nhdgCI6s

[5] Qamar M. F., Raza I., 2012, Scientific evidences that pig meat (pork) is prohibited for human health. Scientific Papers. Series D. Animal Science, Vol. LV, ISSN-L 2285-5750, 281-286.

[6] Although smoking isn’t food or drink, it is worth mentioning here as it is commonly consumed by a large number of people all over the world.

[7]  IARC “ Tobacco Smoking and Tobacco Smoke, Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation”
Volume 83 – Chapter 5.2: Human carcinogenicity data – Cigarettes, 2004.

[8] Impure, foul

[9] Al Bukhari

[10] http://www.orkin.com/rodents/rats/rat-borne-diseases/

Abo Bakr (RA):

His main focus was to follow the footsteps of the prophet (PBUH). An example that may highlight this is when he sent the army of Usamah Ibn Zayed who had been appointed by the prophet (PBUH). Sending this army had a great impact on eradicating the trials. (Simple Encyclopedia of Islamic History, 2013). Abo Hurairah (RA) indicated this by saying, “By Allah, who is the only Lord, had Abo Bakr not been the caliph, Allah would not have been worshipped” then he mentioned the issue of Usama’s army.[3]

During the lifetime of the prophet (PBUH) Abo Bakr was known for his gentleness, kindheartedness and excellence, however, he demonstrated leadership when he became a caliph as he kept these qualities balanced with firmness for the sake of Allah. Abo Bakr’s first address to the Muslims is clear-cut evidence as he delineated his policies, maintaining shura and justice which he totally abode by- He said,

“… I am better than none of you. Thus, if I do good work it is incumbent on you to extend your help and support to me; if I go wrong it is your duty to put me on the right path. …. The weak among you are strong to me unless I give them full jus tice, and the strong among you are weak to me unless I receive what is due from them…. Obey me while I keep obeying Allah and His Messenger (PBUH); renounce me when I disobey Allah and His Messenger (PBUH) for obedience to me is not incumbent on you then.”[4]

There are things that clearly stand out during Abo Bakr’s caliphate: for one thing, he uprooted the apostasy movement in the Arabian Peninsula when many people were unwilling to pay zakat- the 3^rd pillar of Islam. The decisive leader sent 11 armies to defeat the apostates. The mission was successfully accomplished. As a result of the battles, a number of huffaz[5] were martyred. The other thing is the compilation of the Qurán as advised by Omar (RA). Abo Bakr was hesitant at the beginning but he was convinced and the process began.

Omar Ibn Al Khattab (RA):

The prophet (PBUH) said to Omar once, “By Allah, Satan will never tread a way you pass through” (Al Bukhari 3294)

He also said, “Had there been a prophet after me, he would have been Omar” (Sunan At-Tirmizi 3686)

Omar Ibn Al Khattab showed an exemplary model for the leader. It is worth mentioning that the faculties and qualities he possessed were second to none. He was known as ‘Al Farouq’ i.e. the one who separates between haqq and baatil.

During Omar’s (RA) caliphate, the area of the Muslim state expanded to be around 22.5 hundred thousand square meters; the Muslim army opened Damascus, Ajnadeen, Jerusalem, Egypt and Persia. While it might be argued that the Muslim state was able to conquer Rome and Persia- the 2 most powerful states in the world at this time- due to their decline, the truth of the matter is that the Muslim stated was relatively new- it was about 20 years old.

Omar’s (RA) accomplishments touch many aspects, such as: political, social, administrative and financial dimensions of the Muslim state. Najeebabadi states that Omar instituted his firsts in these different spheres (2000:371). Amongst these accomplishments are: setting up the formal baitul maal (public treasury), introducing the Hijri calendar, adopting the appellation of Amirul Momineen, regulating military department, establishing a separate financial affairs department, introducing the record keeping for different things and setting the police department. Omar also was the first to allow traders of rival countries to come for business. The destitute Jews and Christians were given daily allowance. He enacted criteria for the selection of governors. Last but not least, he introduced a survey-like system to gather information about the state and the masses.

To conclude, it is nonnegotiable that the Muslim state in the caliphate of Abo Bakr and Omar has consolidated its position thanks to their invaluable efforts keeping the promises of the prophet (PBUH), abiding by the Qurán and Sunna, and applying shura and justice. As a result, most of the world at this time was subject to the Muslims and numerous people came to the fold of Islam willingly and the other practiced their teachings freely under the tolerance of the Muslims.

Bibliography

Al Sergani, R. (2006), إدارة عمر بن الخطاب. [online]. Available from <http://islamstory.com/ar/ إدارة_بن_الخطاب> [Accessed: 18th Dec 2013]

Al Sergani, R. (2008), دروس من حياة أبي بكر الصديق [online]. Available from <http://islamstory.com/ar/دروس_من_حياة_أبي_بكر_الصديق> [Accessed: 18th Dec 2013]

As-Soyooti, (2004), Tarikhul Khulafaa تاريخ الخلفاء . [Windows® PC application], n.d.: Maktabt Nizr Mustafa Al Baz

At-Tirmizi, (1998), Al Jamea Al Kabeer الجامع الكبير – سنن الترمذي. [Windows® PC application], Beirut: Dar Al Gharb Al Islamy

FDA[6], (2013), The Simple Encyclopedia of Islamic History  الموسوعة الميسرة في التاريخ الإسلامي. Cairo: Iqraakotob publishing

Najeebabadi, A. (2000), The History of Islam. n.d. : Darussalam

[1] The first rightly-guided caliph after prophet Muhammed (PBUH)

[2] The second rightly-guided caliph after prophet Muhammed (PBUH)

[3] FDA , (2013), The Simple Encyclopedia of Islamic History  الموسوعة الميسرة في التاريخ الإسلامي. Cairo: Iqraakotob publishing

[4] Ibn Saád, At-Tabaqaat (884 H)

[5] Those who memorise the Qurán.

[6] FDA is the acronym of Farik Derasat Islameyya, i.e. Group of Islamic studies research

Introduction

Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) is the greatest teacher who was able to transform the behaviours of a group of Bedouins in the Arabian Peninsula into the world’s leading civilisation in a relatively short time. This is because he was sent by Allah, the creator of the heavens and the earth and what is between them. Allah said to his prophet, the meaning of which is, “And thou (standest) on an exalted standard of character” Qurán (68:4)

The prophet’s teaching methodology

1. Using visual aids:

Ali Ibn Abi Talib narrated: The Prophet of Allah [SAW] took hold of some silk in his right hand and some gold in his left, then he said: “These two are forbidden for the males of my Ummah[1]”

The prophet used realia as well as speaking in order to stress the importance of the topic. Realia is ‘real-world objects that are brought in to the classroom as tools or aids’ as Robertson and Acklam (2000) said. I believe that realia provides an unforgettable visible true experience to the students.

2. Sympathising

Anas Ibn Malik narrated: I had a young brother who was called Abu Umair. He had a sparrow with which he played, but it died. So one day the prophet (May peace be upon him) came to see him and saw him grieved. He asked: What is the matter with him? The people replied: His sparrow has died. He then said: Abu ‘Umair! What has happened to the little sparrow?[2]”

Saphier, Haley-Speca and Gower (2008:21) suggested that educators should be aware of the learners’ emotional state and bring them into balance when needed.

3. Encouraging and praising

The messenger of Allah said to Abi Musa Al Asháari “If you were to see me, as I was listening to your recitation (of the Qur’an) yester-night (you would have felt delighted). You are in fact endowed with a sweet voice like that of David himself.[3]“

Encouragement, enthusiasm and praise are the first three moves to win students in the attention continuum proposed by the Research for Better Teaching Incorporation[4].

4. Experiencing and observation

In the long hadith of Sahl Ibn Sáad when he described how the prophet of Allah performed a prayer and then he faced the people and said: “I have done this so that you may follow me and learn the way I pray[5]”

A student, at the end of each month, remembers 13% of the data he gets through listening, 75% through seeing and 95% through discussion, experience and writing. (Bakkar, 2011: 53-54)

5. Questioning

Abdullah Ibn Omar’s hadith when the prophet asked the companions about a tree which is blessed like a Muslim[6].

Also, the Hadith of Abi Hurairah when the prophet asked them: “Should I not suggest to you that by which Allah obliterates the sins and elevates the ranks?[7]”

Bakkar (2011: 36-37) indicated that when we ask the learners meaningful questions it develops their intelligence and this skill makes the discussion more vivid and understandable.

Conclusion

Overall, what’s outstanding, I believe, is that all which is mentioned in this paper is a drop in the ocean compared to the teaching methodology of prophet Muhammed (PBUH). Teaching theories change over time; nevertheless, the prophetic methodology is still the renewable source from which we continue to benefit. For one thing, prophet Muhammed is selected by Allah to guide all humanity until the Day of Judgment, for another, the manifestation of his teaching methodology in the generations which followed his way is second to none: they opened the whole world and made breakthroughs in various fields whether education, theology, science or philosophy.

Bibliography

Al Abbasi, M. E. (2007) الرسول المربي و الأطفال, [online]. Available from <http://www.alukah.net/sharia/0/877/> [Accessed: 7^th July 2014]

Bakkar, A. (2011) صفحات في التعليم و النهوض بالشخصية, Cairo: Dar Assalam

Mahmoud, Y. (n.d.) سلسلة إعداد الداعية المربى : مواقف تربوية من حياة الرسول, [online]. Available from <http://www.saaid.net/aldawah/454.htm> [Accessed: 6^th July 2014]

Pickthal (n.d.) Qurán Translation [online]. Available from <http://www.quranexplorer.com/quran/> [Accessed: 6th July 2014]

Robertson, C. and Acklam, R. (2000) Action Plan for Teachers, London: BBC World Service

Saphier, J., Haley-Speca, M. A., and Gower, R. (2008) The Skillful Teacher, 6^th edition, USA: Research for Better Teaching, Inc.

Smith, M. K. (2001, 2010) David A. Kolb on experiential learning, the encyclopedia of informal education [onlie]. Available from: <http://infed.org/mobi/david-a-kolb-on-experiential-learning/> [Accessed: 7^th July 2014]

Sunnah (2014) Sahih Al Bukhari [online]. Available from < http://sunnah.com> [Accessed: 7th July 2014]

Sunnah (2014) Sahih Muslim [online]. Available from < http://sunnah.com> [Accessed: 7th July 2014]

Sunnah (2014) Sunan Abi Dawud [online]. Available from < http://sunnah.com> [Accessed: 7th July 2014]

Sunnah (2014) Sunan an-Nasaí [online]. Available from < http://sunnah.com> [Accessed: 7th July 2014]

[1] Sunan An-Nasaai 5144

[2] Sunan Abi Dawud 4969

[3] Sahih Muslim 793

[4] More data can be found in The Skillful Teacher (2008, pp.24)

[5] Sahih Al Bukhari 917

[6] Sahih al-Bukhari 5444

[7] Sahih Muslim 251

Being a non-native trainer, especially when you have native colleagues is a challenge. Trainees usually have this “non-nativitis” for many reasons, such reasons are related to credibility. Below are some tips to overcome this problem.

• Language-wise:

1. Language mistakes:

Non-native speakers have certain types of mistakes, sometimes fossilized, and other times because of L1 interference. Having control over such mistakes is a necessity for non-native trainers. An example is the indirect questions. Many people would say, “Do you know how did learners develop this habit? ” instead of ” Do you know how learners developed this habit? ”

2. Pronunciation pitfalls:

Having control over pronunciation can help trainees understand better. Atypical pitfall where I come from is using /s/ and /z/ instead of /θ/ and /δ/. For instance, “I think that …” Can sound like “I sink that …”

3. Have a native accent:

Well, this is controversial. Although the bottom-line is to be clearly and meaningfully understood, having a native accent can make you sound “credible”. In fact, “some Englishes are superpowers”[1]

• Training-wise:

1. The 3 Ps:

Prepare, prepare, prepare! Research suggests that 1 minute of presentation needs 1 hour preparation. This is true for both native speaker and non-native speaker trainers.

2. Using ELT jargon:

Who else would if you don’t? Knowing and demonstrating expressions like: scaffolding, top-down, bottom-up, sub-skills, meta-language, etc. instead of their normal equivalents is a plus point that tells that you are a professional.

3. Exhibiting ELT acronyms:

This isn’t less important than the previous one. Acronyms is a big industry in the ELT huge industry. Failing to decode things such as: TESOL, TBL, AOL, AFL, etc. is a minus point!

4. Go visual:

Showing information works better and make the message memorable. Why would a trainer speaks for 1 minute or more explaining the importance of preparation while s/he can put the following picture?

5. Be at least 1 step ahead:

In terms of training and qualifications. If your trainees have TKT, you should have CELTA; if they have CELTA, have DELTA; if they have DELTA, have masters and so on. In case they reached the PHD, have a specialist area like assessment.

• Management-wise:

1. Insist on the proper channels of communication:

This means that you should refer trainees to the right people. If, for example, they ask about as timetable issue that you know very well, but there is a person who is in charge of timetabling, refer them to this specific person. This is not a general rule as sometimes you need save time.

2. Address issues immediately:

Generally, don’t procrastinate. When dealing with problems promptly they are more likely to be solved. After addressing a certain issue, follow it up and document it for future reference.

3. Be aware of criticism:

Unless it is constructive. If “criticism” is your middle name, please change it. Try to adopt mutual-respect and sympathy.

4. Use facts and figures:

Avoid the emotional approach. Consider the following examples, which is better?

Example 1:          Teacher: Why didn’t you select me for the teacher training course?

Trainer/Manager: Well, you haven’t been showing enough dedication over the last academic year!

Example 2:          Teacher: Why didn’t you select me for the teacher training course?

Trainer/Manager: Well, the report from your line manager shows that you missed 2 formal observations, your absence was 18.4 % and your class records were not updated regularly.

5. Be accessible:

A trainer, for his/her credibility must be accessible to trainees. Either in person, via email or mobile phone.

So, teacher training is an ELT pathway that is not exclusive of bilingual teachers who decide to advance their careers in teacher training. However, they do need to add to their credibility by brushing up their language, training techniques and management skills.

[1] Luke Meddings 2015 < http://lukemeddings.com/2015/03/how-do-you-draw-a-line-so-fine/>