Task-based Learning (TBL) is an increasingly important approach in ELT. It is considered to be a breakthrough as it is thought to replicate everyday situations; learners are encouraged to, as Nunan (2004:1) states, utilise the language of everyday life ‘beyond’ the classroom. Ultimately, TBL is one of the approaches which focus on meaning and communication more than form and structure; learners are given opportunities to use language for natural communication in a classroom setting (Willis & Willis, 2007:4).

This article will provide the definition of Task-based Learning; present the stages of a TBL lesson; and discuss some advantages and disadvantages of the approach.

What is Task-Based Learning?

 In his seminal book, Nunan (2004:1) suggests six principles for TBL, which constitute the basic tenets of the approach:

1. The content is chosen based on the learners’ needs.
2. Communication is done through using the target language for interaction.
3. Authentic materials are included in learning.
4. Giving learners opportunities to focus on what and how they learn.
5. Valuing learners’ experiences as significant factors in learning.
6. Connecting language learning in classrooms with the authentic everyday use of language.

Significantly, these criteria focus on interaction, communication and authenticity. Such goals are achieved by, as the very name of the approach demonstrates, giving learners ‘tasks’. Although it might be perceived that any activity learners do in class is a task, Thornbury (2006:222-223) draws a distinction between a ‘task’ and an ‘activity / exercise’. He argues that ‘tasks’ are classroom exercises which focus on communicative meaningful outcomes, such as solving a problem or drafting a plan. On the other hand, an ‘activity’ or an ‘exercise’ focuses on practising language items, for instance, the present perfect, in a controlled way without any communicative objectives.

Therefore, Task-based Learning is centred around simulating real-life tasks in the classroom to encourage learners to use the language in a natural communicative manner. This does not mean that focus on form is totally neglected, but there is room for it depending on the performance of the learners during tasks.

Stages of a TBL lesson

Typically, a TBL lesson has three main phases: a) pre-task; b) task cycle; c) language focus, as illustrated by Willis (1996:38). Nevertheless, Willis (in Harmer 2001:87) noted that Task-based Learning is more complex than simply a three-stage methodology. The following is a brief account of each stage based on Willis (1996:39-103):

1)    Pre-task:

In this phase, learners are introduced to the topic of the target task. The teacher may need to pre-teach some examples of important phrases learners will need to use when performing the task. Additionally, the teacher will make sure that he / she facilitates instructions so that student understand what they need to do. A key step is that learners hear or watch a similar task as a model for them to follow; for example, if the task is to give a presentation about tourist attractions in their countries, they watch or listen to a presentation about the same topic.

2)    Task cycle:

The task cycle is probably the most productive phase which gives the opportunity for learners to be autonomous and creative. Content and meaning are the sole focus of this phase; learners are not provided language work. The task cycle consists of three steps:

First, they do the task by brainstorming ideas and organising their thoughts in pairs or groups, meanwhile, the teacher monitors from a distance. At this stage, learners’ communication skills are supposed to develop. Going back to the example task of giving a presentation, students at this stage should be deciding on the content, the outline, the pictures of attractions, etc.

Second, students will plan how they are going to report to the rest of the class; e.g., plan how they will deliver the presentation; who will start, who will finish, timings of each students, etc. The teacher’s role here is a ‘language advisor’ who helps students with, for instance, alternative vocabulary to make meanings clearer; grammatical structures which illustrate ideas more meaningfully.

Third, students report their production to colleagues normally orally but can also be in a written form. Apparently, students, who were selected beforehand, report to the rest of the class; they, for example, give time-bound presentations group by group. The role of the teacher is a chairperson who organises the procedures and responds to the content of the presentations.

3)    Language focus:

Unlike the PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) approach in which the language focus comes at the start, TBL concludes with it. It gives learners the opportunity to investigate language they used during the task cycle. Useful language which emerges from the task is analysed and discussed so that students are able to notice it when they encounter the same task in real-life. In order to consolidate such language, learners are given practice activities to help them process useful functional phrases needed for the successful achievement of the task when they do it again either inside the classroom or outside it.

Perceived Advantages and Disadvantages

There are a number of issues which some ELT practitioners perceive about Task-based Learning. Willis and Willis (2007:200) illustrated ten perceived obstacles; they relate mainly to timing, learners, motivation, administration and classroom management. They state that:

• Most books do not use TBL, so there will be a need to find timing to design tasks.
• Lack of timing to integrate TBL into existing syllabi.
• Teacher may be confused about how to teach TBL if they are not used to it.
• Some learners ask for concrete outcomes such as grammatical rules.
• Learners may not be motivated enough to take TBL seriously.
• Given that the approach uses ‘real’ tasks, it is not suitable for low-level students.
• Overwhelming use of L2 for learners during the different phases of TBL.
• Student feel no sense of progress; the outcomes of learning are not clear.
• Challenging for teachers (and learners) because there is no control over language.
• There is a gap between TBL and existing exam systems- exams are not based on tasks.

Although the abovementioned points are feasible, there are ways to overcome them. Consequently, advantages can be derived from such perceived disadvantages. The following are examples of the numerous advantages of Task-based learning:

• It focuses on meaning and production; this lets off steam as it does not confine students to use pre-taught language.
• Learners make efforts to understand each other and to get their messages across, which enables students to acquire language easily (Larsen-Freeman, 2000:144).
• Attention is given to the language needed for genuine communication, not to learn language items simply because they exist in language (Nunan, 2004:7).
• TBL facilitates collaboration, teamwork, negotiation and other skills needed for effective communication.
• Learners experiences are valued, the teacher is not the source of knowledge but rather a facilitator. So, there is a principle of sharing.
• It boosts creativity due to the flexibility of tasks. Although students carry out tasks of the same theme, each individual / group create their own unique tasks.

Conclusion

This essay has presented some key features of Task-based Learning: the premise underlying the approach is to focus on meaning via real-life simulations of genuine tasks learners are expected to encounter outside the classroom. TBL, in its popular framework,  has three phases: 1) the pre-task, in which learners are introduced o the topic and watch / listen to the task they will be doing; 2) the task cycle, this is when students create the task, prepare how to report it to the class and then report it; 3) the language focus phase in which useful language examples are analysed and practised.

While there are supposed limitations to TBL implementation; such as motivation, teachers’ readiness and time constraints; I think that there is always room for experimenting with it and investigating whether or not it suits our learners. I suggest that reading a good TBL book would make it less intriguing and would definitely encourage us to try it out for our learners.

Bibliography

Harmer, J. (2001) The Practice of English Language Teaching. 8^th ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000) Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. 6^th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

Nunan, D. (2004) Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Thornbury, S. (2006) An A-Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmillan Publisher Limited.

Willis, D. & Willis, J. (2007) Doing Task-based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Willis, J. (1996) A framework for Task-based Learning. Essex: Longman.

Motivation is the key to learning. When it comes from within, it’s intrinsic; however, it can be developed and created extrinsically. The following are 5 practical tips to keep your students motivated all the time.

1. Promote a positive atmosphere:

Smile at your students, deal with them in a respectful manner and establish rapport with them. This could be your nature, if not, fake it until you make it. It makes students more valued, confident and have a positive experience which helps them keep motivated.

2. Link courses to big aims; and learning outcomes to big contexts:

I mean to elicit / remind students of why they learn English in the first place, and why we do each (set of) activity (ies). By doing this, the whole learning experience is seen in a meaningful context rather than attending some lessons and doing some tasks in isolation. Consequently, students keep motivated, and regain motivation in case of any ‘downs’.

3. When there’s a communication issue, intervene to fix the issue:

This is an example of mine: 2 days ago, I was teaching a class when one student mentioned a comment in L1, I echoed the comment in a disapproving manner (to highlight that using L1 in this situation is unnecessary). It was apparent that the student got embarrassed because my reaction was a bit off-putting. About 10 minutes later I noticed that the same student was erasing a wrong answer in her colleague’s book, so I said, “Well done for helping your friend; this is a small action but it counts, thank you!” Although it was something minor, I didn’t want to miss this chance to put the student on track again and to make her feel more appreciated.

4. Give students opportunities to express their opinions about learning and suggest improvement:

I do this informally, by having discussions about student’s learning preferences and how they would like to learn; for example I ask them about what kind of activities they enjoy more and why. Formally, at the end of each level, we distribute a questionnaire through which students can say what they find positive and what they need to change; and I react to their needs. Such a way promotes students’ sense of ownership to learning.

5. Not to be an ‘innocent bystander’ all the time:

I mean, sometimes the teacher can become involved in classroom activities (while monitoring of course); for instance, tell your students when they prepare questions for a mingling activity that they can feel free to ask you the questions. They feel more at ease and they like knowing more about their teacher, and, as a result, they maintain motivation.

In this paper I am going to present Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the context of fulfilling human needs in Islam. I will provide examples from Qur’an and sunnah.

Islam is a complete way of life which was chosen by Allah, the creator of the heavens and the earth.  Thus, Islam is totally appealing to human needs as it organises both physical and spiritual sides of the human being.

Abraham Maslow is a psychologist who is known for his hierarchy of needs theory. How far is this theory congruent with Islam? The following account will be touching on this issue.

1. Psychological needs

• Food and drink: Allah says in the Qur’an, “… and eat and drink and not be extravagant…” Qur’an (7:31)
• Marriage: Allah’s Messenger (PBUH) said, “O young people! Whoever among you can marry, should marry, because it helps him lower his gaze and guard his modesty (i.e. his private parts from committing illegal sexual intercourse etc.), and whoever is not able to marry, should fast, as fasting diminishes his sexual power.”[1]
• Sleep: Allah says in the Qur’an, “And He it is who made the night for you, and the sleep a rest, and He made the day to raise up again” Qur’an (25:47)
• Homeostasis: Allah says, “O man! What has beguiled you from your Lord, the Gracious one. Who created you, then made you complete, then made you symmetrical?” Qur’an (82:6-7)
• Excretion: before entering toilets, we should say, “ O Allah, I seek refuge with You from male and female devils “[2]

2. Safety needs

• Body, health and family:

1. Allah says, “… and do not kill your people…” Qur’an (4:29)
2. The prophet (PBUH) said, “…a husband is a guardian of his family and is responsible for it; a lady is a guardian of her husband’s house and is responsible for it…”[3]

• Employment: The Prophet (PBUH) said, “Allah said, ‘I will be an opponent to three types of people on the Day of Resurrection: -1. One who makes a covenant in My Name, but proves treacherous; -2. One who sells a free person and eats his price; and -3. One who employs a laborer and takes full work from him but does not pay him for his labour.’ “[4]
• Resources and property:

1. Allah says, “… and do not squander wastefully.” Qur’an (17:26)
2. Allah also says, “And do not swallow up your property among yourselves by false means” Qur’an (2:188)

• Morality: The prophet (PBUH) said, “‘The best among you are the best in character (having good manners)”[5]

3. Love and belonging needs

• Friendship: The prophet (PBUH) said, “A man is upon the religion of his friend, so let one of you look at whom he befriends.”[6]
• Family and intimacy: Allah said, “And one of His signs is that He created mates for you from yourselves that you may find rest in them, and He put between you love and compassion…” Qur’an (30:21)

4. Esteem needs

• Self-esteem and confidence: There is a weak hadith narrated by Imam At-Tirmdhi which says, ” Do not let yourselves be ‘yes-men’, saying: ‘If the people are good then we will be good, and if they are wrong then we will be wrong.’Rather, make up your own minds, if the people are good then you are good, and if they are evil, then do not behave unjustly.”[7]
• Respect: Allah says, “O you who believe! Let not people laugh at other people perchance they may be better than them, nor let women laugh at other women, perchance they may be better than them; and do not find fault with your own people nor call on another by nicknames, evil is bad name after faith… ” Qur’an (49:11)

5. Self-actualisation needs

• Creativity, spontaneity and problem solving: When the prophet (PBUH) stopped near Badr just before the battle and Al Hubab Ibn Al Munzir asked him if it was inspired to the prophet by Allah or if it was resulted from war and consultation. When the prophet said it was war and consultation, the companion suggested better strategy and the prophet accepted it.[8]
• Lack of prejudice and acceptance of facts: Allah says, ” O you who believe! Be upright for Allah, bearers of witness with justice, and let not hatred of people incite you not to act equitably; act equitably, that is near to piety …” Qur’an (5:8)

To conclude, Islam, the religion revealed by the creator of the heavens and the earth, is fully in accordance with the needs of human beings as Allah is the creator of everything and He know better. Although Abraham Maslow did his best with his theory, Islam comes to encompasses further paradigms beyond man’s imagination.

Bibliography

Al-Bukhari. Sahih Al Bukhari. Edited by Muhammed Zohair bin Nasir An-Nasir. Dar Twq An-Najah, n.d.

al-Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman. Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum. n.d.

At-Tirmidhi. Snan At-Tirmidhi. Edited by Bashar Awwad Ma’roof. Darul Gharb Al Islami, Bairut, n.d.

Braik, Sheikh Saad Al. قيمة الاحترام في الإسلام. n.d. http://www.saadalbreik.com/Sad/news.php?action=show&id=448 (accessed Jul 2, 2013).

collections. n.d. sunnah.com (accessed June 19, 2013).

Islam QA. n.d. http://islamqa.info/ar/ref/137155 (accessed Jul 2, 2013).

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. n.d. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg (accessed Jul 1, 2013).

Muslim. Sahih Muslim. Edited by Muhamed Foad Abdel Baqi. Dar Ihyaa’ At-Turath Al Arabi, Bairut, n.d.

Quran Explorer. n.d. http://www.quranexplorer.com/quran/ (accessed Jul 1, 2013).

Zuhd, Dr. Essam El Abd. The Miracle Verses and its Impact about Sleeping in Quran. Gaza: www.iugaza.edu, 2010.

الأبيضي, محمد بن عبده آل محمد. إجابة السائل عن حديث المرء على دين خليله فلينظر أحدكم من يخالل . Sep 20, 2005. http://www.ahlalhdeeth.com/vb/showthread.php?t=38249 (accessed Jul 2, 2013).

المكتبة الشاملة. Vol. 3.48. Spnsored by www.arrawdah.com. n.d.

صيد الفوائد. n.d. www.saaid.net/‏ (accessed Jul 1, 2013).

[1] Sahih Al Bukhari, vol. 7, pp. 3, no. 5066

[2] Sunan Abee Dawood, vol.2, pp.2, no.4

[3] Sahih Al Bukhari, vol. 3, pp. 120, no. 2409

[4]  Sahih Al Bukhari, vol. 3, pp. 90, no. 2270

[5] Sahih Al Bukhari, vol. 8, pp.13, no. 6035

[6] Sunan At-Tirmidhi, vol. 4, pp. 167, no. 2378

[7] Ibid, vol.3, pp.432, no. 2007

[8] Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum, pp. 98

Introduction

Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) is the greatest teacher who was able to transform the behaviours of a group of Bedouins in the Arabian Peninsula into the world’s leading civilisation in a relatively short time. This is because he was sent by Allah, the creator of the heavens and the earth and what is between them. Allah said to his prophet, the meaning of which is, “And thou (standest) on an exalted standard of character” Qurán (68:4)

The prophet’s teaching methodology

1. Using visual aids:

Ali Ibn Abi Talib narrated: The Prophet of Allah [SAW] took hold of some silk in his right hand and some gold in his left, then he said: “These two are forbidden for the males of my Ummah[1]”

The prophet used realia as well as speaking in order to stress the importance of the topic. Realia is ‘real-world objects that are brought in to the classroom as tools or aids’ as Robertson and Acklam (2000) said. I believe that realia provides an unforgettable visible true experience to the students.

2. Sympathising

Anas Ibn Malik narrated: I had a young brother who was called Abu Umair. He had a sparrow with which he played, but it died. So one day the prophet (May peace be upon him) came to see him and saw him grieved. He asked: What is the matter with him? The people replied: His sparrow has died. He then said: Abu ‘Umair! What has happened to the little sparrow?[2]”

Saphier, Haley-Speca and Gower (2008:21) suggested that educators should be aware of the learners’ emotional state and bring them into balance when needed.

3. Encouraging and praising

The messenger of Allah said to Abi Musa Al Asháari “If you were to see me, as I was listening to your recitation (of the Qur’an) yester-night (you would have felt delighted). You are in fact endowed with a sweet voice like that of David himself.[3]“

Encouragement, enthusiasm and praise are the first three moves to win students in the attention continuum proposed by the Research for Better Teaching Incorporation[4].

4. Experiencing and observation

In the long hadith of Sahl Ibn Sáad when he described how the prophet of Allah performed a prayer and then he faced the people and said: “I have done this so that you may follow me and learn the way I pray[5]”

A student, at the end of each month, remembers 13% of the data he gets through listening, 75% through seeing and 95% through discussion, experience and writing. (Bakkar, 2011: 53-54)

5. Questioning

Abdullah Ibn Omar’s hadith when the prophet asked the companions about a tree which is blessed like a Muslim[6].

Also, the Hadith of Abi Hurairah when the prophet asked them: “Should I not suggest to you that by which Allah obliterates the sins and elevates the ranks?[7]”

Bakkar (2011: 36-37) indicated that when we ask the learners meaningful questions it develops their intelligence and this skill makes the discussion more vivid and understandable.

Conclusion

Overall, what’s outstanding, I believe, is that all which is mentioned in this paper is a drop in the ocean compared to the teaching methodology of prophet Muhammed (PBUH). Teaching theories change over time; nevertheless, the prophetic methodology is still the renewable source from which we continue to benefit. For one thing, prophet Muhammed is selected by Allah to guide all humanity until the Day of Judgment, for another, the manifestation of his teaching methodology in the generations which followed his way is second to none: they opened the whole world and made breakthroughs in various fields whether education, theology, science or philosophy.

Bibliography

Al Abbasi, M. E. (2007) الرسول المربي و الأطفال, [online]. Available from <http://www.alukah.net/sharia/0/877/> [Accessed: 7^th July 2014]

Bakkar, A. (2011) صفحات في التعليم و النهوض بالشخصية, Cairo: Dar Assalam

Mahmoud, Y. (n.d.) سلسلة إعداد الداعية المربى : مواقف تربوية من حياة الرسول, [online]. Available from <http://www.saaid.net/aldawah/454.htm> [Accessed: 6^th July 2014]

Pickthal (n.d.) Qurán Translation [online]. Available from <http://www.quranexplorer.com/quran/> [Accessed: 6th July 2014]

Robertson, C. and Acklam, R. (2000) Action Plan for Teachers, London: BBC World Service

Saphier, J., Haley-Speca, M. A., and Gower, R. (2008) The Skillful Teacher, 6^th edition, USA: Research for Better Teaching, Inc.

Smith, M. K. (2001, 2010) David A. Kolb on experiential learning, the encyclopedia of informal education [onlie]. Available from: <http://infed.org/mobi/david-a-kolb-on-experiential-learning/> [Accessed: 7^th July 2014]

Sunnah (2014) Sahih Al Bukhari [online]. Available from < http://sunnah.com> [Accessed: 7th July 2014]

Sunnah (2014) Sahih Muslim [online]. Available from < http://sunnah.com> [Accessed: 7th July 2014]

Sunnah (2014) Sunan Abi Dawud [online]. Available from < http://sunnah.com> [Accessed: 7th July 2014]

Sunnah (2014) Sunan an-Nasaí [online]. Available from < http://sunnah.com> [Accessed: 7th July 2014]

[1] Sunan An-Nasaai 5144

[2] Sunan Abi Dawud 4969

[3] Sahih Muslim 793

[4] More data can be found in The Skillful Teacher (2008, pp.24)

[5] Sahih Al Bukhari 917

[6] Sahih al-Bukhari 5444

[7] Sahih Muslim 251